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Item Perceived challenges faced by the internal audit function in the South African public sector: A case study of The National Treasury.(Taylor and Francis, 2015-12-24)This article reports on the challenges faced by the internal audit function in the South African public sector, as perceived by role players other than the internal audit function itself. This study implemented a qualitative research design, using a case study as a research method, in order to achieve the research objective. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to obtain participants’ perceptions of the challenges faced by the internal audit function. Participants were selected based on their capacity to act on the findings and recommendations of the study. Participants selected were senior managers, operational managers, and members of audit committees. The biggest challenges facing the internal audit were identified as the lack of business knowledge; lack of management support; lack of audit action monitoring processes, and external auditors ’preference not to rely on the work of the internal audit function. Based on these findings, the authors make recommendations that could benefit the public sector internal audit functions by helping them to better understand the public sector environment and to identify areas for improvement. Finally, the article suggests avenues for further research on the future of the internal audit in the public sector.Item Analysis of the relationship between corporate branding and sales revenue during COVID 19 pandemic.(International Review of Management and Marketing, 2024-07-13)Firm internal resources have been found to influence business survival and profitability during times of crisis. This study aims to examine the relationship between corporate branding and sales revenue of multinational companies during COVID-19 pandemic. This study is based on a quantitative approach and draws on a sample of 74 global companies from various industries that the financial times ranked as prospering during the COVID-19 pandemic. The secondary data were collected from the annual financial statements of sampled companies from 2019 to 2021 and analysed using multiple regression analysis. The findings indicate that the relationship between corporate branding and sales revenue is positive, albeit statistically insignificant. These findings indicate that while corporate branding may not have a significant effect on sales revenue during economic downturn, it is vital for firms to embrace corporate branding as a resource to enhance sales revenue sustainability and thus improve profitability during crisis times such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings have important implication for branding managers and strategic managers in understanding the role of corporate branding in sustaining competitive advantage. Also, firms that were not prospering during COVID-19 crisis may include the investment in corporate branding in their crisis management plan and maximising firm success in the face of different environmental conditions. The results may offer an agenda for further research.Item Corporate innovation strategy and sales revenue of multinational companies in times of crisis: A case of the Covic-19 pandemic.(Corporate & Business Strategy Review, 2025-03-04)Businesses varied in their experiences during the COVID-19 crisis, some faced significant difficulties while others thrived (Hu & Zhang, 2021). Over the past three decades, literature has demonstrated that a company’s success during turbulent business and stable environments is increasingly influenced by intangible resources rather than tangible ones (Masood et al., 2017). This study aims to explore the impact of corporate innovation (CI) strategy on sales revenue (SR) during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study is quantitative, based on a sample of 74 global companies that were identified as thriving during the pandemic by the Financial Times. Data for the period 2019–2021 was analyzed using a Pearson pairwise correlation matrix and cross-sectional regression analysis. Our findings revealed a positive and statistically significant correlation between CI and SR. However, the direct impact of the CI strategy on SR was found to be statistically insignificant. These findings suggest that while CI strategy may not have an immediate impact on SR, it is crucial for sustaining SR, even during the recent COVID-19 crisis.Item Fumonisin toxicity, bioaccessibility and control of fusarium spp. using essential oils.(Tshwane University of Technology, 2018-10-01)Maize is a major staple food and the largest grain crop in South Africa. The mycotoxin, fumonisin B (FB), a Group 2B carcinogen produced by Fusarium spp., is a common contaminant in South African maize. The mode and mechanism whereby FB exerts toxicity is multifaceted and seems to vary in different cells and animal species. A major difficulty in the determination of FB in food is the occurrence of various forms of cryptic or masked FB (including modified and matrix-associated forms). These are not detected by routine analytical methods, which may result in an underestimation of the contamination levels and the associated health risk. The broad aim of the study was to gain a better understanding of the risks associated with fumonisins in South African maize. This was achieved by determining the toxicity of fumonisins, evaluating the interactions of fumonisins with the macrocomponents of maize, and determining their bioaccessibility from maize porridge. In addition, the in vitro potential of selected plant essential oils (EOs) as natural fungicides towards Fusarium spp., isolated from maize and soil, was investigated. In this study, the zebrafish embryo test (FET) was used to complement cell-based assays for the determination of the cytotoxicity, teratogenicity and acute toxicity of FB. The reaction between FB and starch, glucose, zein, amino acids and maize meal, respectively, were studied under different pH and temperature processing conditions. To evaluate the risk associated with the consumption of fumonisin-contaminated maize porridge, the bioaccessibility of FB from in stiff maize porridge was determined in the TNO Gastrointestinal Model of the stomach and small intestine (tiny-TIM). Soil and maize samples were collected from the two major maize-producing provinces in South Africa. The soil was characterised by determining the soil texture, moisture content, pH, conductivity and trace element composition. Fungi in the soil and maize samples were isolated, characterised and identified. The potential of lemongrass, spearmint and thyme EOs for the biocontrol of Fusarium spp. isolated from soil and maize was determined using an in vitro toxic medium assay. Furthermore, the effect of the lemongrass EO on FUM1 and FUM21 gene expression and FB production was assessed using two fumonisin-producing F. verticillioides strains The results demonstrated that FB1 exhibited a very low cytotoxicity towards the RTL-W1 trout liver cell line when tested without pH adjustment (IC50 1 260 μg/mL), but no cytotoxicity when the pH was adjusted to physiological conditions. The mycotoxins FB1, FB2, FB3 and HFB1 were not genotoxic towards the RTL-W1 cell line. The zebrafish FET also yielded high LC50 values for FB1 (765 and 277 mg/L after 48 and 96 h exposure, respectively), indicating a low acute toxicity. After adjusting the pH of FB1 solutions to physiological conditions, the LC50 could only be obtained after 96 hpf using the concentrations tested. The LC50 for pH-adjusted FB1 (682 mg/L) was 2.5 times higher than the corresponding concentration without pH adjustment (277 mg/L). This indicates that the acute toxicity towards zebrafish embryos was reduced but not entirely eliminated when adjusting the pH. In the zebrafish FET assay, HFB1 proved to be less toxic than FB1. The LC50 values for HFB1 at 48 and 96 h were 1 090 and 471 mg/L, respectively. The teratogenicity index for FB1 (with and without pH adjustment) and for HFB1 (without pH adjustment) were <2, indicating a lack of teratogenicity towards zebrafish embryos. The current study quantified the pH shifts caused by high concentrations of FB1 and HFB1 and proved that the pH shifts contribute greatly to their toxicities. It also confirmed that the FET is a useful toxicity screening tool that may account for effects not observable in cell cultures. None of the processing treatments (pH 4, 7 and 10) or temperatures (30 and 90 °C) resulted in a significant decrease in the recovery of FB1 from starch, glucose, zein or maize meal spiked with FB. These results confirm the stability of FB1 in maize porridge and the absence of formation of modified forms of FB. Although the recovery of FB1 from a mixture of amino acids and from glutamic acid alone was low, the ultraperformance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight–high-definition mass spectrometry analysis demonstrated that no modified FB was formed in the presence of glutamic acid at ambient temperature. This highlights the challenges associated with the determination of FB in different food matrices, and the importance of validating the methods applied to each matrix to promote evidence-based decisions regarding the risk of FB to food safety. Stiff maize porridge was prepared from maize meal naturally contaminated with fumonisins, as well as from fumonisin-free maize meal. To determine the bioaccessibility of the mycotoxins, the porridge was digested using the tiny-TIM in vitro dynamic model with parameters simulating human digestion. The results proved that FB1, FB2 and FB3 are released rapidly from stiff maize porridge made from contaminated maize meal. After 360 min, 68%, 94% and 87% of FB1, FB2 and FB3, respectively, were bioaccessible, which confirms that the low bioavailability of FB is not due to strong association of the toxin with the intestinal content. The fact that the fumonisins in contaminated maize porridge become available rapidly for absorption during digestion, imply that it is likely that the intestine could be exposed to high concentrations of FB after consuming porridge prepared from contaminated maize meal. A total of 25 Fusarium cultures were isolated from soil and maize samples. The soil did not contain any fumonisin-producing fusaria, as only F. equiseti, F. solani and F. brachygibbosum were detected. Soil analysis confirmed that the samples represented a variety of textural classes, and that there were differences in the pH and the trace mineral composition of the soil samples collected from the different locations. Two species of Fusarium were isolated from maize, namely F. oxysporum and F. verticillioides; with F. verticillioides being the most prevalent. Lemongrass EO was more efficient than spearmint and thyme in inhibiting the growth of the Fusarium spp. in vitro when tested in the toxic medium assay. At a concentration of 400 μL/L, lemongrass oil was able to prevent the growth of 18 Fusarium cultures isolated from maize and soil, as well as that of the reference culture MRC 826. The expression of FUM1 and FUM21 genes, which are involved in the biosynthesis of fumonisins, were also prevented at the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). Concentrations lower than the MIC (100 μL/L and 200 μL/L) resulted in an increase in FUM1 and FUM21 gene expression, and after 28 days, the highest fumonisin concentration (28.6 ng/mL) was detected in the MRC 826 culture treated with 200 μL/L lemongrass EO. The results obtained are of concern, since they imply that EO treatments aimed at controlling pathogenic fungi may actually stimulate mycotoxin production in fungi that survive. This could pose health risks for consumers. This study was the first to use the RTL-W1 trout liver cell line and zebrafish FET to determine FB toxicity and has broadened the existing scientific knowledge concerning the toxic effects of FB. The stability of FB during the preparation of stiff maize porridge was confirmed and there was no evidence of the formation of modified FB under typical conditions used for the preparation of porridge. The current project presented new insights into the kinetics of FB release from porridge during simulated human digestion. The rapid release of FB from cooked porridge, thereby exposing the intestinal mucosa to FB, suggest that consumers using maize as a staple may be at risk. The inhibitory effects of lemongrass EO on FUM gene expression demonstrates potential for it to be used as a fungicide above the MIC. However, reported for the first time, is the potential risk of increased FB production by the fungus when exposed to concentrations below the MIC.Item Investigation of the knowledge and understanding of hygiene practices amongst small-scale farmers producing ready to eat vegetables in the three regions of the Gauteng Province. Gauteng Province THE GAUTENG PROVINCE(Tshwane University of Technology, 2025-06-01)Introduction: Ready-to-eat vegetables are an essential part of a healthy, balanced diet. They provide significant nutritional benefits; however, they also pose serious challenges due to their susceptibility to contamination. These vegetables are usually eaten without further processing, making food safety a major concern. Most fresh produce used in ready-to-eat dishes, such as salads, undergoes minimal handling, often just washing before consumption. This limited processing increases the risk of contamination and emphasizes the importance of stringent hygiene measures during production, handling, and distribution. This study aims to establish the current state of knowledge regarding hygiene practices and their application among small-scale farmers in the three regions of Gauteng, South Africa. This study aimed to describe the current understanding of food hygiene in the handling and preparation of ready-to-eat vegetables. The objective was achieved through farm inspections and observational visits, as well as interviews with small-scale farmers. These methods were used to gather information on their knowledge, perceptions, and application of hygiene practices during the production of ready-to-eat vegetables in the study areas. Materials and methods: This study followed an empirical investigation setup, where a data-based collection approach was used to determine the population size (n=75) and the sample size from each region as follows: City of Tshwane (n=25), Ekurhuleni (n=25), and West Rand (n=25). Existing literature was consulted to compare and contextualise the observations made regarding hygiene practices. The participants were as follows: eighty percent (80%) came from the City of Tshwane, seventy-two percent (72%) from the City of Ekurhuleni, and eighty percent (80%) from the West Rand district. All interviews were conducted at the farms using a structured questionnaire, along with observations and inspections of each farm. All participants in all three regions answered the same questions. To ensure informed consent, each farmer was asked to sign a consent form indicating their agreement to participate in the investigation. To ensure participants fully understood the study, consent forms were translated into Nguni languages (Zulu and Swati), which are commonly spoken by the target population. Farmers who agreed to take part in the investigation were also asked to grant permission for the researcher to capture still images as part of the data collection process. This was also clarified in the research participants' leaflet provided to the researcher during data collection. Results: The results of this study were as follows: eighty-six percent (86%) of the farmers indicated that they had been trained in basic food hygiene by the Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, with ² =37.4533 and p=0.0001. During the inspection, the following was observed: eighty percent (80%) of the farmers adhered to the hygiene application, with ² =3.8533 and p=0.0001. Ninety percent (90%) of the participants had a stage in the process flow for the removal of physical hazards prior to packaging, with ² =111.4400 and p<0.0001. Participants used water to wash the products to remove dirt and soil, while the other ten percent (10%) did not use water, believing that it interferes with the shelf life of the ready-to-eat vegetables. Conclusions: The findings of this study revealed that small-scale farmers producing ready-to-eat vegetables in the three regions had predominantly received training in food hygiene and demonstrated a sound understanding. Farming support plays a significant role in equipping small-scale farmers, indicating that such interventions are effective in enhancing agricultural practices. However, there is still much more to be accomplished across the country, particularly in rural areas. The overall results indicated that most of the small-scale farmers producing ready-to-eat vegetables were trained in food hygiene, and that hygiene practices were observed. However, the minority that was not compliant had attitudes based more on beliefs than a lack of knowledge.
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